Machiavelli - Question 3. Explain how Machiavelli's application of empirical methods to human affairs marks an important stage in the evolution of political science.

                                  Machiavelli's application of empirical methods to human affairs is evident in his work the 'Prince'. By introducing the empirical methods Machiavelli is introducing new ways of understanding, analyzing politics and human affairs. These new ways are based on observations, experiences, realities and not on some abstract principles or moral ideals. 

                                       Normative philosophy focuses on how things are ougth to be rather than how they actually are. Normative political philosophy is concerned with ideals, ethics, moral principles, a vision of what is good or bad. Thinkers that came before Machiavelli, i.e. Plato and Aristotle focused on this philosophy. Contemporary examples of normative philosophy - (1) establishment of UN in 1945, (2) adoption of universal declarations of human right in 1948, (3) European Union is an idealistic vision created for lasting peace and prosperity.

                                         Machiavelli's realism as articulated in his remarkable book the 'Prince', he is departing from the idealist traditions followed by the earlier thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. Infact he is known as the first realist scholar. Realist scholars observe things on their own by looking at the data, history, contemporary evidence and then they conclude. For Machiavelli primary concern for any ruler should be the acquisition, maintenance and use of the power, power is essential element of politics as for him the 'end justifies the means'. According to him a ruler must be willing to act immorally when necessary, using whatever means required to achieve political stability and security, for him a ruler should be a lion and a fox. He also has a cynical view on human nature, as he sees humans as self-interested beings, fickle minded and prone to deceit. (1) Historical example - Machiavelli was inspired by Cesar Borgia, he observed how effectively he used power, manipulation, strategic alliances to expand his influence. He loved the ruthless elimination that he persuaded. (2) Contemporary example - India conducted a series of nuclear tests despite the international pressure, potential for sanctions, it was a realist move. (3) USA approach to Middle East is always guided by strategic interest and not by the idealistic goals, that's a reflective of Machiavelli's focus on power dynamics. 

                                              However, Machiavelli's ideas have faced significant criticism form Leo Strauss, he argued that Machiavelli's separation of politics from ethics leads to a form of political amorality where the pursuit of power justifies any means including deceit, cruelty. Isaiah Berlin criticized Machiavelli for undermining the moral foundations of politics, he suggests that his ideas contribute to cynical view of power and that can lead to authoritarianism. 

                                                   The 'end justifies the means' is the central idea of Machiavelli's philosophy, his introduction of empirical methods marked a pivotal shift in the study of political science by focusing on the realities of power and human nature, rather than idealistic visions. Machiavelli’s work remains influential in shaping the modern political thought.